Examining The Use Of Milling Machines - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3217 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? In previous chapter, the literature review piece and objective of present work has been discussed. This chapter introduces the speculative background of response surface methodology, introduction of milling machine, cutting principal, milling cutter taxonomy, machining parameters, chip thickness formation and milling machine parameters which influence the surface roughness 2.1 BACKGROUND Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Examining The Use Of Milling Machines" essay for you Create order As an central subject in the statistical design of experiments, the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) is a collection of mathematical and statistical techniques useful for the modeling and analysis of harms in which a response of interest is influenced by several variables and the objective is to optimize this response RSM also quantifies dealings among one or more measured responses and the vital input factors. The DOE++ software was used to develop the untried plan for RSM. The same software has also used to analyze the data collected. After analyzing each response, multiple response optimization technique have performed, either by inspection of the interpretation plots, or with the graphical and arithmetic tools provided for this purpose. It has mentioned previously that RSM designs also help in quantifying the dealings between one or more measured responses and the vital input factors. In order to determine if there stay alive a relationship between the factors and the response variables investigated, the data together must be analyzed in a statistically sound manner using regression. A regression is performed in order to describe the data unruffled whereby an observed, empirical variable (response) is approximated based on a functional bond between the estimated variable, yest and one or further regress or or input variable x1, x2,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, xi. The least square technique is being new to fit a model equation containing the said regressors or input variables by minimizing the residual error measured by the sum of square deviations between the actual and the probable responses. This involves the calculation of estimates for the regression coefficients, i.e., the coefficients of the representation variables including the intercept or constant term. The calculated coefficients or the model equation need to however be tested for statistical implication. 2.2 MILLING MACHINE 2.2.1 Introduction Milling machines was first invented and developed by Eli Whitney to mass construct interchangeable musket parts. Although makeshift, these machines assisted man in maintain exactness and uniformity while duplicating parts that can not be manufactured with the use of a file. Development and improvement of the milling machine and components continuous, which resulted in the manufacturing of heavier arbors and high speed steel and carbide cutters. These components allowed the operator to remove metal more rapidly, and with more accuracy, than prior machines. Variations of milling machines were also developed to perform special milling operations. During this era, computerized machines has been developed to alleviate error and provide better. Milling are perhaps the most versatile machining operation and most of the shapes can be generated by this action. Unlike turning, shaping and drilling tools, the milling tool possesses a large number of cutting edges. Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or asymmetrical surfaces by feeding the work piece against a rotating cutter containing a integer of cutting edges. The milling machine consists basically of a motor driven spindle, was mounts and revolves the milling cutter, and a reciprocate regulating worktable, which mounts and feeds the work piece. Milling machines are basically classified as vertical or horizontal. These machines is also classified as knee-type, ram-type, manufacturing or bed type, and planer-type. Most milling machines has self-contained exciting drive motors, coolant systems, variable spindle speeds, and power operated table feeds. Milling machines play an significant role in most machine shops, machining metals to various shapes and sizes by means of a revolving cutting tool or tools having a number of cutting edges called teeth. Such tools has known as milling cutters or mills. In order to machine numerous configurations in a milling machine, man have developed various types of milling cutters to fit the necessary requirements. Most milling cutters has made of high speed steel; some employ the utilize of carbide teeth and inserts.[20] The working principle, employed in the metal removing operation on a milling machine, is that the work has rigidly clamped on the board of the machine, or held between centers, and revolving multi-teeth cutter mounted moreover on a spindle or an arbor. The cutter revolves at a fairly high speed and the work fed leisurely past the cutter as shown in figure. The work can be fed in a vertical, longitudinal or cross direction. As the work advances, the cutterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"teeth do away with the metal from the work surface to produce the desired shape. [21] Figure2.1: Working Principle of milling operation [21] 2.2.2 Milling Cutter Nomenclature Figure 2.2 shows two views of a common milling cutter with its parts and angles acknowledged. These parts and angles are common to all types of cutters in some form. The pitch refers to the angular distance between like parts on the adjoining teeth. The pitch is unwavering by the number of teeth. The tooth face is the forward facing surface of the tooth which forms the cutting edge. The cutting edge can the angle on each tooth which performs the cutting. The land is the fine surface behind the cutting edge of each tooth. The rake angle is the viewpoint formed between the face of the tooth and the centerline of the cutter. The rake angle defines the cutting edge and provides a path for chips that have cut from the work piece. The primary clearance angle is the viewpoint of the land of each tooth, measured from a line tangent to the centerline of the cutter at the cutting edge. This angle prevents every one tooth from rubbing against the work piece after it makes its cut. The secondary go-ahead angle defines the land of each tooth and provides supplementary clearance for the passage of cutting oil and the chips. Figure 2.2: The two views of a common milling cutter with its parts and angles identified. [21] The hole diameter determines the size of arbor that is essential to mount the milling cutter. A keyway was present on all arbor-swelling cutters for locking the cutter to the arbor. Plain milling cutters that has more than 3/4 inch in width can usually made with spiral or helical teeth. A plain spiral-tooth milling cutter produces a better and smoother draw to a close, and requires less power to operate. A plain helix-tooth milling harvester is especially desirable where an jagged surface or one with holes in it have to be milled. The teeth of milling cutters are either right-hand or left-hand, viewed from the back of the machine. Right-hand milling cutters cut when rotate clockwise; left-hand milling cutters cut when rotated counterclockwise. Saw Teeth: Saw teeth are whichever straight or helical in the smaller size of plain milling cutters, metal slitting saw milling cutters, and closing stages milling cutters. The cutting edge is usually given about 5 ° primary clearance angle. Sometimes the teeth have provided with offset nicks which shatter up the chips and make coarser feeds promising. Formed Teeth: Formed teeth can usually specially made for machining unbalanced surfaces or profiles. The possible varieties of formed-tooth milling cutters are more or less unlimited. Convex, concave, and corner-rounding milling nail clippers are of this type. Inserted Teeth: Inserted teeth had blade of high-speed steel inserted and rigidly held in a blank of machine steel or cast iron. unlike manufacturers bring into play different methods of holding the blades in place. Inserted teeth are more cost-effective and convenient for large-size cutters because of their reasonable initial cost and because worn or broken blades has be replaced more easily and at less price tag 2.2.2.1 Recommended Angles for Milling Cutter The angle between the face and the land of the cutter tooth is called lip angle (ÃŽÂ ²).Its value depends upon the values of rake and relief angles. A larger lip angle ensures a brawny tooth. As such, the endeavor should be to keep it as large as practicable. This is particularly chief while milling harder metals and when deeper cuts to be employed. Cutters having helical teeth are made to contains a helix angle between 10à ¢Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã‚ ¦ (degree) and 50à ¢Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã‚ ¦ (degree) the recommended values of principal angles are given in the table [19] Table 2.1: Recommended Angles for Milling Cutter [21] Material Recommend values in degree Rake angle(degree) Relief angles(degrees) H.S.S Tools Stellite Tools Cemented carbides Cast iron(Soft) 10-15 6-8 3-6 4-7 Cast iron(Hard) 10 3-6 0-3 4-7 Mild steel 10-15 3-6 0-(-5) 3-5 Aluminum alloys 20-30 10-15 10-20 10-15 Brasses and Bronzes 10-12 5 2-3 10-15 Mg.alloys 20-30 15-20 15-20 10-12 2.2.3 Machining Parameters 2.2.3.1 Selection of Speed The approximate standards given in may be used as a guide for electing the proper cutting speed. If the operator finds that the machine, the milling cutter, or the work piece cannot be handle suitably at these speeds, instantaneous readjustments shouldcan be made. If carbon steel cutters have used; the speed should be about one-partially the recommended speed in the table. If carbide-tipped cutters are used, the speed could be doubled. If a bountiful supply of cutting oil is theoretical to the milling cutter and the work piece, speeds can be increased 50 to 100 percent. For roughing cuts, a moderate speed and coarse feed often give best results; for last cuts, the best practice is to reverse these conditions, by means of a higher speed and lighter feed. The formula for manipulative spindle speed in revolutions per minute is as follows: Where, Spindle speed (in revolutions per minute). Cutting speed of milling cutter. Diameter of milling cutter (in inches) 2.2.3.2 Selection of Feed The rate of feed, or the speed at which the work piece pass the cutter, determines the time obligatory for cutting a job. In selecting the feed, there are several factors which should be well thought-out are as follows: Forces are exerted against the work piece, the cutter, and their property devices during the cutting process. The force exerted varies directly with the amount of metal unconcerned and can be regulated by the feed and the depth of cut. Therefore, the wrong amount of feed and depth of cut have interrelated, and in turn are dependent upon the rigidity and power of the machine. The feed and depth of cut also depend upon the type of milling cutter being used. For example, deep cuts or foul-mouthed feeds should not be attempted when using a small diameter end milling cutter, as such an attempt would spring or break the cutter. Coarse cutters with muscular cutting teeth can be fed at a faster rate because the chips may be washed out more without problems by the cutting oil. The feed of the milling machine may be selected in inches per minute or millimeters per minute the milling feed has determined by multiplying the chip size (chip per tooth) desired, the integer of teeth on the cutter, and the revolutions per minute of the cutter. Example: the formula used to hit upon the work feed in inches per minute Where Feed rate in inches per minute Chip pert tooth Number of teeth per minute of the milling cutter Figure 2.3 shows the path of feed during the cutting operation. It is usually regarded as standard practice to feed the work piece against the milling cutter. When the piece is fed aligned with the milling cutter, the teeth cut under any weighing machine on the work piece surface and any backlash in the feed screw is taken up by the weakness of cut. As an exception to this recommendation, it is advisable to feed with the milling cutter, when cutting off accumulation, or when milling comparatively deep or long slots. The direction of cutter rotation had related to the behavior in which the work piece is held. The cutter should rotate so that the piece springs away from the cutter; then there will be no predisposition for the force of the cut to loosen the work piece. No milling cutter should be rotated toward the rear as this will break the teeth. Never revolutionize feeds while the cutter is rotating. Figure2.3 Direction of Feed during machining operation [21] 2.2.4 Chip Formation in Milling Operation The scheme of chip formation during plain milling using a straight cutter is explained in figure 2.4. The cutter has a diameter and the depth of cut provided by. When milling is done straight-edge cutter, the operation is orthogonal and the kinematics of chip formation is shown in figure 2.4. Since all the cutting edges take part in machining, a study of the process is facilitated by considering the action of only a single tooth. If is the feed velocity of the table in mm/min, the effective feed per tooth in mm will be, where is the cutter rpm and is the number of teeth in cutter. The material removal rate per unit width of the job is given by. It is clearly seen from figure that the thickness of the uncut material in front of cutting edge increases gradually, reaching a maximum near the surface and again drops to zero quickly. If the feed velocity is small as compared with the circumferential velocity of the cutter, then Figure 2.4: Details of chip formation [22] Where is the angle included by the contact arc at the cutter center O in radians. Now, considering the triangle OAT, we have Hence, Neglecting the higher order terms in as it is normally very small. Using this value of in the expression of the maximum uncut thickness, we get It is obvious that when cutting with a straight cutter, there is no component of the cutting force along the straight cutter axis. The average uncut thickness can be taken as half of the maximum value. Thus, From the above equation show that when the depth of cut increases, the chip thickness increases so that increases the cutting resistance and the amplitude of vibrations. As a result, cutting temperature also rises. Therefore, it is expected that surface quality will deteriorate. When the feed rate increases, the chip thickness increases so that increases in cutting force and vibration. 2.3 SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS Surface roughness is an chief factor when dealing with issues such as friction, lubrication, and wear. It also have a major impact on application involving thermal or electrical confrontation, fluid dynamics, noise and vibration control, dimensional tolerance, and abrasive processes, among others. The resultant roughness fashioned by a machining process can be thought of as the amalgamation of two independent quantities Ideal roughness: Ideal surface roughness was a function of feed and geometry of the tool. It represents the best promising finish which can be obtained for a given tool shape and feed. It can be achieved only if the built-up-edge, chatter and inaccuracies in the machine tool activities are eliminated completely. For a sharp tool without nose radius, the maximum height of disproportion is given by Rmax = f/(cot à Ã¢â‚¬   + cot ÃŽÂ ²) Here f is feed rate, à Ã¢â‚¬   is major cutting edge angle and ÃŽÂ ² is the inconsequential cutting edge angle. The surface roughness assessment is given by Ra = Rmax/4 Idealized model of surface roughness have been without a doubt shown in Figure 2. 5. Practical cutting tools was usually provided with a rounded corner, and figure shows the surface produced by such a tool under ideal conditions. It can be shown that the roughness assessment is personally related to the feed and corner radius by the following expression: Ra=0.0321 f 2/r Where, r is the corner radius. Figure 2.5: Idealized Model of Surface Roughness [20] Natural roughness: In practice, it is not usually possible to achieve environment such as those described above, and normally the natural surface roughness forms a outsized proportion of the actual roughness. One of the main factors causative to natural roughness is the occurrence of a built-up edge and vibration of the machine tool. Thus, superior the built up edge, the rougher would be the surface produced, and factors tending to reduce chip-tool friction and to eradicate or reduce the built-up edge would give improved surface finish. The Principal fundamentals of surfaces are as follows: Surface: The surface of an object is the boundary which separate that object from another substance. Its shape and extent has usually defined by a drawing or descriptive specifications. Profile: It is the form of any specified section through a surface. Roughness: It was defined as closely spaced, irregular deviations on a scale smaller than that of waviness. Roughness may be superimposed on waviness. Roughness is uttered in terms of its height, its width, and its distance on the surface along which it is precise Waviness: It is a recurrent deviation from a flat surface, much like impression on the surface of water. It is measured and described in terms of the freedom between adjacent crests of the waves (waviness width) and height between the crests and valleys of the impression (waviness height). Waviness can be caused by Deflections are tools, dies, or the work piece, Forces or temperature sufficient to cause warp, Un flush lubrication, Vibration Any intermittent mechanical or thermal variations in the system during Manufacturing operations. Flaws: Flaws, or defects, are random irregularities, such as scratches, crack, holes, depressions, seams, moan, or inclusions as shown in Figure 2.5 Lay: Lay or directionality is the direction of the predominant surface pattern and was usually noticeable to the naked eye. Lay direction have been shown in Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Surface Characteristics [20] 2. 3.1 Factors Affecting the Surface Finish Whenever two machined surfaces come in make contact with with one another the quality of the mating parts the stage an important role in the performance and wear of the mating parts. The height, shape, arrangement and track of these surface irregularity on the work piece depend upon a number of factors such as: The machining variables which affect the surface roughness has spiteful speed, feed and depth of cut. The factors of tool geometry which affect to achieve surface draw to a close are nose radius, rake angle, side cutting edge position, cutting edge Work piece and tool material combination and their mechanical property Quality and type of the machine tool new Auxiliary tooling, and lubricant second-hand Vibrations connecting the work piece, machine tool and cutting tool. 2.3.2 Factors Influencing Surface Roughness in Milling Machine The various factors which influence surface roughness of work piece in the milling machine are: Depth of cut: escalating the depth of cut increases the cutting resistance and the amplitude of vibrations. As a result, cutting temperature also rises. Therefore, it has expected that surface eminence will deteriorate. Feed: Experiments show that as feed rate increase surface roughness also increases due to the increase have cutting force and vibration. Cutting speed: It is found that an increase of cutting speed generally improves surface eminence. Engagement of the cutting tool: This factor acts in the same way as the distance downward of cut. Cutting tool wears: The irregularities of the cutting edge due to wear are reproduce on the machined surface. Apart from that, as tool wear increases, other dynamic phenomena such as unwarranted vibrations will occur, thus further deteriorating surface quality. 2.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS In this chapter, the working principal of milling machine is presented. The categorization of milling cutter with its parts and angles are presented. Machining parameters which affect the surface roughness, chip thickness formation and factors influence surface roughness in milling machine are also presented in this chapter.

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Flying Many people care about there safety when is comes to traveling. Do people understand how safe they really are? Airplane pilots have the responsibility and the skill to protect a great sum of people. Those who have ever flew on an airplane before have left there lives in the hands of the pilot. We will write a custom essay sample on Safe sky or any similar topic only for you Order Now You don’t always have a smooth flight and walk out complaining but at least there are no disturbances in the cabin. Pilots must be armed in the cockpit to ensure the safety of the passengers on a commercial flight. The history of airplanes has been around for centuries. It dates all the way back to the 1900’s with two brothers named Orville and Wilbur Wright. The Wright brothers worked in a bicycle shop when they got inspired to fly. They began building gliders and improving it flight by flight until it was flyable. The Wright Brothers became the first people to successfully fly a plane with a person in it. In December of 1903, the Wright brothers created the first powered plane that could fly for more than an hour (History). Airplanes have come a long way since that point; however, airplanes are still not totally safe or risk. On September 11, 2001 tragedy hit for airplanes. Hijackers hijacked multiple planes, to hit multiple targets. This could have been avoided if pilots were approved to carry firearms on airplanes. Many people insist that it wouldn’t have made a difference, and could have made the situation worse if the pilots were armed and hijackers got a hold of them. Pilots can know be armed in the cockpit on aircrafts after certain requirements are met since the tragedy that occurred on September 1 1 . The pilots were trained at a flight school in Arizona. â€Å"President Obama is quietly ending the federal firearms program, risking public safety on airlines in the name of an anti-gun ideology. The paper notes that $2 million has been diverted from training for the program, and that approval of new pilots has â€Å"stalled out. † President Obama is quietly ending the federal firearms program, risking public safety on airlines in the name of an anti-gun ideology (Valone). Since Obama’s election, pilots have told us that the approval process for letting pilots carry guns on planes slowed significantly. He is supposed to be helping the problem but making it worse. President Obama is cutting the prices in the wrong places putting peoples live at stake for a budget cut. People safety is more important. Why not cut from the TSA, who has never stopped a terrorist attack even with all the new technology they have. Many reasons exist as to why airline pilots should be armed in the cockpit, but the strongest and most sensible reason is now much responsibility is on the pilot. common stereotype is that pilots Just take off the plane, put it in autopilot, then kick back and take a nap or watch a movie. Pilots aren’t always aware of what is going on in the cabin. If there were a disturbance in the cabin and people tried to break into the cockpit pilots would be able to defend them selves and other passengers if rmed. The guns they would carry would be equipped with frangible bullets made of highly compressed, powdered alloys rather than solid lead or other metals such as those used in standard bullets. (Stark) The difference with these bullets are they wont ruin the fuselage of the airplane (body of plane). The bullets are destructive to human flesh and would tear the target up. Pilots with these bullets can protect passengers and help avoid from any terrorist attacks on planes. Pilots will also have to go through a rigorous training course in which will deputize them as Federal Flight Deck Officers. The Federal Flight Deck Officers (FFDO) program was created after the September 1 1, 2001, terrorist attacks and has since trained 12,000 pilots on how to carry weapons and defend their aircraft against an attack. These Federal Flight Deck Officers are mostly ex military. That means that they have the extra gun training due to the background in the military and also specialize in combat training. The course that pilots have to go through is tough. Pilots go through dozens of simulations and practice sessions designed to be as real as instructors can make them by going live and also interacting with a computer. Pilots have blistered trigger fingers after they shoot a total of 8,000 rounds from their semiautomatic pistol in one training simulation. They also practice striking and grappling with attackers in close quarters. The training has been done in an area comparable to the size of a phone booth, in order to simulate the cockpit’s cramped quarters. Pilots must also undergo a psychological test. Pilots in the FFDO program must place their firearms in a separate lockbox when not in the cockpit because TSA says that the pilots’ jurisdiction ends at the cockpit door. Many people that are opposed to commercial pilots being armed say that it will ust cause more of a threat. There are many concerns that have been raised about arming pilots or letting them carry guns, but armed pilots actually have a much easier Job than air marshals. An armed marshal in a crowded cabin can be attacked from any direction. He must be able to quickly identify innocent civilians from terrorists. An armed pilot only needs to deal with the people trying to force their way into the cockpit. It is also much easier to defend the cockpit rather than to have to chase the terrorist and physically capture them, as a marshal would. The terrorists an only enter the cockpit through one narrow entrance, and armed pilots have time to prepare themselves as hijackers try to break down the strengthened cockpit doors. For example, if there was a situation to where a terrorist got into a cockpit before the pilots could react the terrorist will know have a gun as a weapon compared to a plastic knife or fake bomb. (Mackett ) People also say that if a pilot was to miss a shot that the bullet can damage the fuselage of the plane and cause the plane to suffer from depressurization problems. Opponents bring up a respectable case but most of it can be fixed or proven wrong. Arming commercial pilots will make the planes safer and trustworthier. Many people also say that innocent bystanders can get hurt or killed in a result of a pilot having to use a gun in an emergency. That’s not a good reason because cops get into shootouts and very rarely do innocent bystanders get shot or killed. Also the pilots would have gone through extensive target training to prevent them from missing their target. One pilot would be fighting off the terrorist as the other fly the plane. Six percent of those who have applied for the FFDO program have not been accepted; two percent were not qualified to apply, three ercent failed the psychological evaluation, and one percent failed the background investigation Oohnson). Commercial pilots belong to one of the most respectable categories Jobs out. They are responsible for many people lives at one time. Airplane pilots should be armed because in a situation that could not be resolved it could end smoothly by a pilot. The pilots would be required to take a six week training program that would teach them techniques on how to disarm a terrorist and target training. Also the ammunition for the weapons will be made out of highly compressed powdered alloys that should shatter on harder surfaces (Stark). Commercial pilots must be armed in the cockpit to insure the safety of the passengers. The chances of an aircraft being transformed into a weapon of mass destruction are diminished similar the events of September 2001 through the dual defenses of armed pilots and fortified cockpit doors. The chances of an aircraft being transformed into a weapon of mass destruction are diminished similar the events of September 2001 through the dual defenses of armed pilots and fortified cockpit doors. How to cite Safe sky, Papers

Chilean Miners free essay sample

The company Codelco is yet to inform the immediate families of the miners about the circumstances. There are some considerations to keep in mind regarding what potential needs the families of the trapped miners will require when informed of their loved ones situation. The information given is as important as is the method in which the message is delivered. The actions that must be taken before the message can be delivered to the families of the miners, involve the gathering of as much information as possible. The place to start is to identify which employees are among the trapped so that the families’ of these workers can be located and communicated the news of the incident firsthand. Codelco, along with emergency authorities must gather as much information about status of the trapped miners as well as physical location and quality of the environment in which the miners are located. This will help define viable options for the retrieval and rescue of the miners as well as their welfare. We will write a custom essay sample on Chilean Miners or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Only then should Codelco appoint appropriate members of their staff to locate and communicate face-to-face with each of the employee’s families. The company will notify them with as much information as they possibly can at that moment regarding the status of the health of the employee along with what plans the company will formulate to rescue the miners. The message delivered must be done so in a tactful manner and with as much empathy as possible. The message must also be able to deliver the facts known at the time. Plans to provide support and comfort for the families of the employee will be revealed to the families at this time. There will be many questions the families of the miners will realize may have been left unanswered and many more will follow once the gravity of the situation has settled. The focus of the company will be to provide as much information as possible about the welfare of their employee to his family during the ongoing rescue efforts. Codelco will make every effort to provide support and comfort to the families of the trapped miners and ensure the company is doing everything possible to bring home alive. The considerations to keep in mind concerning the message Codelco will want to convey to its employees will vary significantly, in some areas, from the message conveyed to the families of the trapped miners. Most of the message given to the employees in the company obviously will be the same. The focus of the message that will be sent to the employees of Codelco, unlike the message sent to the families of the trapped miners, is one of unity. The company again will confer with emergency authorities to gather as much information about status of the trapped miners as well as physical location and quality of the environment in which the trapped miners currently occupy. This will help define viable options for the retrieval and rescue of the miners as well as their welfare. Only the message this time must be announced to every employee throughout the company. The manner in which the message is delivered cannot be accomplished with only one method, so several methods such as employee meetings, e-mail, and even via the media will be required to ensure the message is distributed to every employee. The purpose of the message sent to every employee is to inform of the incident as well as to identity the employees trapped. Codelco also wants to keep its employees abreast of the status and welfare (as it is known) of the trapped miners because it will soon need the support of the workers themselves to come together and formulate a plan and help carry out the plan to save their fellow coworkers. Codelco communicated the situation to both the families of the trapped miners as well as to its own employees; giving them essentially the same information. However, because the company realized that the level of sensitivity each of these two groups required were two different etiquettes; the approach to delivering the communication to each of the groups was done so in very different formats. The responses and reactions needed and expected from the two groups also needed to be distinct. Comfort and support was the goal the information given to the families of the trapped miners Codelco hoped to portray while understanding and unity was the hope it would receive from the employees. Timeline: Trapped Chilean miners. (2010). Retrieved from http://www. cnn. com/2010/WORLD/americas/10/13/chile. miners. timeline/index. html Weik, J. (2010). Over 30 workers trapped after Chilean copper mine collapse. Metal Bulletin Daily, (224), 65.

Sample Assignment with MLA Referencing

Introduction Obesity has emerged as the most pressing nutritional problem facing the developed world. This trend has occurred over a relatively short period of time; in the United States, it appears to have begun in the last quarter of the 20th century. The epidemic in children followed shortly thereafter. The most recent data (19992000) from national surveys in the United States suggest that almost two thirds of the adult population is overweight, and almost one third is obese (Flegal et.al, pp. 1724). In children, current estimates (19992000) put the prevalence of overweight at 15%, a threefold increase over the past 30 years (Ogden et.al, pp. 1729). Although this epidemic has spared no subgroup of the population and has been documented in individuals of all ages and racial/ethnic and socioeconomic subgroups, the problem is greatest in minority populations and among persons living in poverty. Obesity is a global public health problem, affecting virtually every region of the world with the excep tion of sub-Saharan Africa. Discussion Identification The World Health Organization (2000) defines obesity as a condition of abnormal or excess accumulation of adipose tissue (body fat) to an extent that an individual's health may be impaired. Because the precise measurement of adipose tissue requires invasive laboratory measures, in the population context, a simpler measure on which to base an obesity definition is required. Although imperfect, the Body Mass Index (BMI), defined as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared, has been adopted by consensus in the United States by the National Institutes of Health (1998) and the Centers; for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and internationally by WHO (2000). Consensus definitions of overweight and obesity have been set at 25 (overweight) and 30 (obesity), with severity classes of obesity defined as follows: overweight, 25.0 to 29.9; Class I obesity, 30.0 to 34.9; Class II obesity, 35.0 to 39.9; and Class III obesity, 40.0+. The WHO (2000) terminology differs slightly, but the cutoff points are the same. In growing children, in whom weight and height are both changing (and at different rates), the definition of obesity is inherently more complicated. Although no universally agreed on standard exists for assessing overweight and obesity in children and adolescents, there is a growing consensus that BMI should be adopted as an indirect measure of adiposity for children and adolescents, as well (Barlow Dietz, pp. 223). Because BMI varies substantially by age and gender during childhood and adolescence, the specific BMI cutoffs used to classify obesity must be gender- and age-specific and must be referenced against a standard. In the United States, the standard used is the CDC Revised Growth Reference (Barlow Dietz, pp. 228). Internationally, several standards (Cole et.al, pp. 27; Ogden et al., pp. 1728), including one based on a pooled international sample (Cole et.al, pp. 1241), are also in use. Several periods in development have been proposed as critical periods in the development of persistent obesity and its comorbid consequences. These include the prenatal period (when intrauterine exposures may influence adiposity), early childhood, and adolescence. Some evidence suggests that breast-feeding may protect against later obesity. Likelihood of persistence in adulthood of obesity from childhood is related both to age at onset and severity. Sequelae Childhood obesity has a number of immediate, intermediate, and long-term health consequences (Must Strauss, pp. S3). These include classic cardiovascular risk factors, such as high blood pressure, abnormal blood lipid levels, and impaired glucose tolerance. Respiratory conditions include sleep-disordered breathing. In addition, early menarche and menstrual abnormalities are linked to overweight. Of particular concern is the emergence of type 2 diabetes, once considered an adult-onset disease, as a disease of childhood. The psychological impact may represent one of the most damaging effects of obesity given that stigmatization and social isolation may result in lower self-esteem and depression. In a recently replicated classic study, children were asked to rank order a series of drawings of children with various handicaps (crutches, wheelchair, missing a hand, facial disfigurement, obesity) based on which child they would like best (Latnerm Stunkard, pp. 456). The obese child was ra nked last irrespective of the ranking child's sex, race, socioeconomic status, living environment, and own disability. In another study, ratings of quality of life for children with obesity were similar to those of children undergoing chemotherapy for cancer (Schwimmer et.al, 2003, pp. 1814). Although obesity in adulthood that has been present from childhood may carry an additional burden due to increased severity, much adult obesity arises through adult weight gain. The health consequences of obesity present in adulthood are enormous, both in magnitude and impact on quality of life. In developing its clinical guidelines, the NIH report identified an extensive list of health conditions for which obesity increased risk. These include hypertension, type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, sleep apnea and respiratory problems, many cancers, and depression. The number of deaths per year in the United States attributable to obesity has been estimated at about 300,000. Risk Factors In all persons, child or adult, obesity arises due to energy imbalance: When energy intake exceeds energy expenditure, most of the excess calories are stored as adipose tissue. To give rise to obesity, energy imbalance must occur over a long period of time and likely reflects a combination of factors. Individual behaviors, environmental factors, and heredity, singly and in combination, contribute to the development of obesity. The rapidity with which the obesity epidemic emerged rules out simple genetic explanations. The current environment in the United States has been characterized as obesogenic, meaning that it promotes high energy intakes and low energy expendituresthe energy imbalance that gives rise to weight gain. Modern industrialized societies provide abundant, relatively inexpensive food; modern life is organized to reduce energy expenditure at work and at home, through technology and urbanization. For a species that evolved to store fat in times of plenty in order to survi ve in leaner times, many individuals are genetically susceptible to gain weight in the current environment. Excessive energy intake is a primary risk factor for the development of childhood and adult obesity, although the specific aspects of intake responsible are controversial. Dietary factors, such as diet composition, energy density, fat intake, fruit and vegetable consumption, snacks, sugar-rich foods, and soft drinks, have all been identified in association with obesity. Increased consumption of fruits and vegetables can help reduce the intake of dietary fat and calories because they are naturally low in fat and energy density compared with other foods. Despite current recommendations that individuals over the age of 2 years consume 2 to 4 servings of fruits and 3 to 5 servings of vegetables daily, children and adolescents eat an average of only 3.6 servings of fruits and vegetables per day, and fried potatoes account for a large proportion of those servings. A number of other dietary variables, including soft drinks, snacking, portion sizes, and infant feeding have also been linked t o childhood obesity. Studies suggest that the increased consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks, snack foods (which are often high in fat or/and sugar), and large-sized portions of foods have contributed to the increase in energy intakes. Reduced physical activity may be the most important factor in explaining the increase of obesity over the past two decades. Physical activity among U.S. youth is in decline, with nearly half of young people aged 12 to 21 reporting that they do not engage in vigorous physical activity regularly and one fourth reporting no vigorous physical activity. Whereas leisure time physical activity has increased in men and remained constant in women over the past four decades in the United States, activity associated with work and home life has declined over the same period. Sedentary behavior and inactivity, such as watching television and playing video/computer games, also are contributory factors. Gortmaker et al. (1996) reported an adjusted-odds ratio (OR) for obesity of 8.3 for adolescents who watched TV more than 5 hours per day compared with those who watched 0 to 2 hours. Compelling evidence comes from intervention studies, which show that reducing TV viewing time can help prevent childh ood obesity. Adults in a trial of maintenance following weight loss sustained their losses best when physical activity was high and television viewing was low (van Baak et.al, pp. 210). TV watching may promote obesity by reducing physical activity, lowering metabolic rate, and increasing energy intake. The latter may occur due to the fact that TV viewing may be associated with snacking and may moderate eating habits generally through greater exposure to advertising of foods high in added sugars and fat or by conveying mixed messages about lifestyle and health in the content of advertisements. TV viewing is a major source of inactivity among Americans. Screen time, a summary measure of time spent viewing television and videos and engaged in computer-based activity, represents the largest proportion of nonsleep, nonschool time for youth. Conclusion Obesity has emerged as the major nutritional problem facing the pediatric and adult populations worldwide. The etiology of obesity is multifactorial and includes individual risk factors, genetic influences, and environmental effectors. The severity of the problem, in terms of immediate and long-term health consequences to physical and psychological health, suggests it is a problem that will dominate the public health agenda in the 21st century.

Women as Hero

Introduction With modern socioeconomic forces behind the movement of people from their native lands to urban areas that contain cultural mixture, major world cities are witnessing an influx of disjointed immigrants who are unable to cope with their new environments.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Women as Hero specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Migrating from one region to another with maximum cultural distance becomes a challenge as the newcomers settle in the new environments. As Padilla and Perez postulate, â€Å"Throughout most of the 20th century, social scientists theorized about the process by which newcomers to the United States become incorporated into the main-stream culture† (36). This observation underscores the concepts of acculturation and multiculturalism, which have gained substantial national attention since the rise of African-American, Latino, and the Asian immigrants into the US and while the American public schools have increasingly engaged in organizing immigrants and their offspring to become prolific society members, the predicament of women immigrants is underestimated. Therefore, this essay explores multiculturalism and acculturation in the context of women’s plight. Concepts of acculturation and multiculturalism The gradual rise and augmentation of human immigration behavior have brought another unique human experience that calls for considerable attention. Just as the process of human adaptation to the natural environment, assimilating into a new region with a different culture is not an easy assignment (Masten et al. 18).Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conventionally, human beings differ culturally, socially, and even customarily depending on the region of residence and individuals’ background. When human beings strive to acqui re certain cultural elements of the central society in foreign regions in the process of assimilating the conditions of these new regions, the process refers to acculturation. Berry posits, â€Å"Acculturation is the dual process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more cultural groups and their individual members† (698). With the growing trends of immigration across the world, acculturation thus becomes an integral process that finally allows different cultural groups to mingle easily and share even their languages. Another modern concept that accompanies immigration, globalization, and internationalization issues, which are practical in the contemporary times, is multiculturalism. Multiculturalism or cultural diversity is a demographic process of integrating different ethnographic groups to integrate and assimilate despite their cultural distinction (Berry 706). Akin to acculturation, multiculturalism is one of the eff orts that aim at enhancing the process of human assimilation into different cultural boundaries, thus enabling migrants of different backgrounds to inhabit one another culturally.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Women as Hero specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, several researchers view multiculturalism as a failed concept given the increasing cases of racial prejudice and minority discrimination amongst immigrants. The throes of change and human social integration in many nations through the processes of acculturation and multiculturalism have been difficult issues to ascertain their successfulness (Padilla and Perez 46). Frequently, immigrants and the minority groups in many European countries and most recently in some Arabic nations have reported increased cases of racial and ethnic bias despite portraying high levels of acculturation into the dominant communities. The quandary of women and powe r in Diaspora With the modern, tightly contested political and social matters, the notion of gender bias has been an obstacle to women’s progress across the world (Masten et al. 15). In many circumstances, women have been facing the most effective of struggling to acculturate in regions with strict cultural norms. Conventionally, the process of assimilation, especially in the European nations, has not been an easy assignment considering the historical predicaments of African-Americans, Mexican Americans, the Latinos, Chinese Americans, and other early American immigrants. Acculturation has been a complicated phenomenon, especially when considering the process by which women assimilate and integrate into the cultural norms of the dominant host communities. According to a research undertaken by Masten et al. (16) regarding the effect of acculturation on the minority Latino women, several issues emerged. The study unveiled that acculturation has adverse negative health and behav ioral effects on Latino women as compared to their male counterparts.Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Becoming a hero, from all forms of contested political and social issues, is quite a challenging issue amongst women, especially those who are undergoing the acculturation process. Apart from the common barriers, adopting certain cultural behaviors of the dominant cultural group principally to assimilate with these groups brings some unique challenges that hamper them from becoming independent and influential. Masten et al. (16) assert that due to fragmented and undermined multiculturalism strategies, ethnic minority groups despair in their quest to acculturate and the ultimate process of assimilation ends in desperate intermarriage. This move is usually the beginning of women hardships, especially when married to the host majority community where the process of acculturation barely gives the woman an opportunity to explore leadership talents. Two critical issues are continually contributing to privation of women during the acculturation process and they include education and employ ment where empowerment gradually begins (Berry 702). Having appropriate leadership qualities drawn from educational achievements and financial prosperity are two important actors in modern headship. Education, acculturation, and women power Immigration and assimilating into new regions is a difficult process for families and individuals and women; the problems are twofold. Education is one of the integral aspects that determine the successfulness of the acculturation process and most probably, it influences cultural diversity (Berry 710). Lack of formal education has been one of the significant contributors of women suffering during the acculturation process where education becomes a limiting factor in enhancing women power. Lack of means to communicate well with the main-stream population and lack of confidence in handling public matters are some of the difficulties that women portray, thus making them unqualified for leadership positions (Berry 706). Coupled with the notion that i mmigrant women possess little influence on the native communities and have to acculturate in a bid to become acceptable in the indigenous population, the quest to dominate leadership positions remains hampered. Supposed to be the only feasible way to ensure that immigrants become productive members in foreign lands, education is a factor in women development in foreign nations. Low levels of education among immigrant women are the major causes of their failure in occupying leadership positions in foreign nations, especially for the immigrants of color, as demonstrated in several European nations. According to Masten et al. (4), â€Å"higher acculturation as demonstrated by research relates positively to high liberal attitudes of women, higher levels of knowledge and education, single marital status, and younger age.† Women in foreign nations either have completely no education or their levels of education are relatively low and when striving to acculturate and possess power, especially overseas, it becomes an insurmountable challenge. A practical example is in the US is where most discrimination cases arise in educational disparity, as research reveals that the minority groups find themselves residing in substandard housing, which leads to poor educational attainment (Padilla and Perez 46). Lower education depicts lower employment chances and social self-esteem, something that poses challenges to several immigrant women in their pursuit of attaining power. Employment, income and women power In any modern community, employment has become one of the integral contributors to the development of families and acquisition of self-independence among individuals. Acculturation in a foreign country may be challenging as one has to begin with establishing a reliable source of livelihood and at this point, employment becomes a crucial aspect during acculturation process (Masten et al. 16). Many women immigrants are less likely to survive in many foreign nations for attaining a suitable employment is ordinarily challenging. The rise of many women usually occurs in their employment zones, especially when given opportunities to demonstrate their talents and potential by the organization before showing interest in communal leadership. A study on Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans, and Latinos revealed that high poverty and employment rates among these immigrant women are major causes of depression as well as acculturation difficulties experienced (Berry 709). Unemployment, poverty, and social stigma encourage low-self esteem among women and hence, low chances of leading communities. Income is the primary source of human independence in the contemporary days and leadership earnestly relies on this aspect. Women with stable employment and high wages exhibit the desired confidence in leadership and leading in a native land is not exceptional, as it requires financial potency and high education. High levels of acculturation, as demonstrated by Masten e t al. (17) positively relate to more broadminded attitude among women and stable economic situation, places women at higher chances of taking leadership. Due to significant disparities in income and occupational levels between the ethnic minorities and the dominant Native Americans, acculturation and leadership become difficult for the immigrant women in the US. According to Padilla and Perez (48), â€Å"there is substantial evidence that women who work are more likely to compare their outcomes (low wages) with those of other women rather than with those of men.† This assertion means that wage and salaries between men and women are incomparable and the situation is likely worse to immigrant women. Stress, depression, and women power Women become conquerors through formal leadership and leadership undoubtedly requires a straight mind. Research reveals that women suffer more acculturative stress compared to men and thus socio-cultural and psychological adaption is much difficul t to them (Berry 697). There exist substantial individual differences in how people incorporate the process of acculturation described in terms of assimilation, separation, and marginalization strategies. For women, health issues are primary causes of acculturation stresses experienced and according to research, these are among the main limiting factors towards women leadership. According to Masten et al. (15), practical research among the American immigrants revealed that acculturation stress in Hispanics as examined might be due to depression and related socioeconomic pressures. Among the Central American immigrants, similar results discussed by Masten et al. (15) indicated that acculturated stress significantly associated with higher depression in women. Coupled with other social issues that cause social prejudice in women, their probability of acquiring leadership with these conditions is minimal. As per the definition, acculturation typically involves a systematic process that engrosses culturally modifying individuals’ behavior to cope with the dominant host culture (Masten et al. 15). Stress in women results in low acculturation on many occasions, and their challenges towards leadership begin at this point. Generally, â€Å"individuals with low acculturation tend to adhere to their native cultural norms when interacting with the host communities† (Masten et al. 15). Among other causes, low acculturation and related acculturative stress occur where high marginalization, racial prejudice, social stigmatization, unemployment and poverty persist. With these critical issues against women development and empowerment, there chances of becoming leaders in foreign nations after demonstrating low acculturation to the native communities become relatively nominal (Padilla and Perez 54). Given that acculturation is more challenging to those individuals who are different, (either by color, religion, or physiognomy), these constraints are more adverse to women than to men and hence their survival in leadership and development remains constrained. Politics, policies, social dominance and women power Immigration and social mobility are universal issues that have continuously attracted international interests both in research and policy development within nations. Based on studies of ethnic minorities and immigranti communities in the US, politics of the nations have contributed to the suffering of women immigrants in foreign nations (Berry 700). Given that the dominant culture remains influential in its native land in terms of power, privilege, and status, acculturation, where cultural diversity is underestimated, becomes a challenge for the women leadership aspirants. For instance, in the United States, although regarded as among the most democratized nations across the world, national politics have continuously hampered women development and empowerment. The crackdown to find illegal immigrants and deport them to their native natio ns has sometimes extended to the innocent and subsequently contributed to women suffering (Berry 700). Women considered as immigrants face the challenges instigated by the political pressures and the insensitive anti-immigrant policies that lead to their suffering and discrimination. Imposed against their growth, they live in fear of national repression. The likelihood of leading in a foreign nation, especially where there are maximum cultural differences is a challenge to many. In understanding the concept of acculturation stress in minority groups, one of the inseparable issues in this aspect is the issue of social dominance that demonstrates how cultural hierarchies influence leadership. Women aspiring for leadership find themselves in quandaries while confronting the host’s majority community and their hierarchical order that comes from cultural dominance. As Padilla and Perez (44) note, it is ordinarily evident that social institutions and cultural groups involve a parti cular form of hierarchy, with the majority group capable of exhibiting more independence. Padilla and Perez posit, â€Å"The theory of social dominance states, â€Å"social hierarchies are validated through cultural ideologies that sustain the legitimacy and centrality of hierarchy within the larger society† (44). Therefore, as the immigrant women strive to assimilate into the host culture through the acculturation process, their chances of clinching leadership positions remain minimal. Multiculturalism as the only solution As modernization entails globalization, where individuals globally interact and culturally inhabit, the need to strengthen the notion of multiculturalism is becoming essential. However, prior and present studies demonstrate multiculturalism as a failed concept internationally. Political democracy has improved, human civilization has enhanced, and economies have changed, but the process of acculturation in the midst of polarized cultural differences is bec oming a major global dilemma (Berry 758). Communities have to first change from the old conformist ideologies towards the realization of the significance of having multicultural society where individuals of different races, religious backgrounds, nationality, and cultural differences interact freely, share and cooperate. The popular belief that prevailed during the massive American immigration process was that whatever beliefs or traditions came with immigrants into the US would finally disappear and they would adopt the American culture (Berry 758). This assumption has not materialized to date, as the US is and may continuously develop as a nation of immigrants. Building multicultural societies is not merely a communal process, and thus important steps that would encourage gradual understanding of the multiculturalism process are essential in the modern societies (Padilla and Perez 37). Multicultural communities would develop well through the comprehensive integration of multicultu ral studies in schools and institutions where youngsters grow psychologically understanding the essence of cultural diversity. In a bid to avoid suffering of ethnic minorities and social alienation, cultural diversity will potentially enable women, youth, children, disabled, and the elderly to have equitable access to critical community development opportunities (Padilla and Perez 37). This aspect would effectively influence policy development and enactment of regulations that strengthen the minority and vulnerable groups towards the upper lanes of leadership and development positions. Socioeconomic stress is the major contributor to acculturative stress, where depression arises from social and economic pressures that finally lead to depression and other factors that subsequently hamper women from securing leadership positions. Undisputedly, the European nations, the Asian nations, and even the African nations need each other mutually to grow economically, socially, and even politic ally. Great encouragement should prevail in developing the critical multiculturalism strategies where acculturation receives support from changes in political dimensions, social ideologies, and dissolved cultural differences (Padilla and Perez 44). As important persons and leaders that possess an influence on racial and ethnic majority groups, politicians should exercise unbiased leadership that would help in encouraging cultural diversity. To gain cultural diversity in the global context, they should refrain from divisive politics of creed, color, nationalism, religion, and culture in a bid to encourage internationalism without cultural divide. Padilla and Perez posit that since immigrants feel less â€Å"motivated while attempting to acculturate where they believe discrimination persists against their minority group by members of the dominant social class, multiculturalism would best resolve this predicament† (40). Women would feel confident when they notice that they are b ecoming more acceptable in the community than when despised and alienated. Conclusion Conventionally, people love traveling and sharing experiences across the world. Acculturation is an uphill task especially when struggling to fit in a dominant community that shares different cultural norms (including skin color, religious practices, and even physiognomy). The presence of immigrants of different cultural norms in different nations continues to precipitate international interests as the cases of racial prejudice, ethnic discrimination, societal alienation, religious bias, and even cultural segregation persist. Acculturation may continue posing endless challenges to the minority groups and women, as part of the vulnerable groups, are at risk of facing adverse negative effects while struggling to assimilate in foreign nations. Multiculturalism is the probable solution as it advocates acceptance and maintenance of valued features, traditions, and beliefs of all cultures living together . Works Cited Berry, John. â€Å"Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures.† International Journal of Intercultural Relations 29.2 (2005): 697–712. Print. Masten, Willam, Laura Mosby, Christine Asidao, Jerome Wanda, Toy Caldwell-Colbert, Margarita Medina, and Gonzalo Hernandez. â€Å"Depression and Acculturation in Mexican American and European American Women.† Annals of Psychology 20.1 (2004): 15-21. Print. Padilla, Amado, and William Perez. â€Å"Acculturation, Social Identity, and Social Cognition: A New Perspective.† Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 25.1 (2003): 35-55. Print. This research paper on Women as Hero was written and submitted by user Kristopher Barr to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

one essays

one essays Its one love, one blood, one life we get to do what we should. One life with each other; sisters, brothers. One life, but were not the same, we got to carry each other... U2, in my opinion, is one of, if not the most noteworthy band of its time. Starting their band as 14, 15 and 16year olds, U2 started to appear on the scene in the 80s. This rock band has set a precedent for other bands to live up to. These boys from Dublin have used their art to bring attention to views and issues that affect them and the people of the world. Topics such as religious prejudice, love and self-expression have often been recurring themes in their music. Their song One particularly stands out as probably their best, and most significant song. One brings about Bonos views on life, love, and companionship. Love is a temple, loves a higher law... Love is one of U2s themes in the song One. The emotion of love is a multisided feeling. A person can love their family, their friends, and their spouse and all forms of that emotion encompass a different feeling. Aside from the love aspect of this song, Bono also sings about life, and how people should concentrate more on living their life to the fullest instead of just getting by. Its one life, we got to do what we should. The idea that U2 is trying to get across is that many people do not consider the consequences of their actions before they act. I feel that many people do not get to know enough of the peers to the extent where they would say they love them. And this is unfortunate, for love is an emotion that a person can keep giving. There is no limit on the amount of love a person can offer, and not enough people express themselves accordingly. In reference to living life to the fullest, I strongly feel that not enough people do. Too many people put off things ...